Page 4 of Part 5: Stepping into the Americas

I. The Y chromosome genetic markers of the American aborigines

Where did the American aborigines come from? Before molecular anthropology becomes a scientific discipline, scientists can only conduct their research based on geographical proximity, resemblance in skeletal structure and the tools used at the different times. Once molecular anthropology is well established as a scientific discipline, it is the most reliable method to unveil the secrets surrounding the migratory routes of different ethnic groups as well as their ancestral lineage by analysis of the DNA decoding from these ethnic groups. This also applies to the American aborigines.

In the last century, Stanford University had a team of 21 conducting research on the relationship between ethnic groups and their Y chromosome (Please see Part 2” Looking for the Y-Chromosome Adam”). From the American aborigines, they collected Y chromosome samples from 106 males. The result showed that the Y chromosome DNA is closed related to those living in Asia. At the present time, there are many other research reports which confirm this conclusion.

The Y chromosome of the American aborigines is relatively simple consisting of two types, one with the M217 genetic marker C3 haplogroup and the other with the M242 genetic marker Q haplogroup.

Figure 5-21 American aborigines’ Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA genetics markers and haplogroups and relevant dates

(Note: Please note that the figure on the left side inside the red rectangle boxes beginning with M and P letters and figures are the genetic markers of the Y chromosome whereas the haplogroups are represented by the letters and figures within the black rectangle boxes. On the right side, the mitochondrial DNA are represented by letters and figures within the red rectangle boxes whereas the haplogroups are represented by the letters and figures within the black rectangle boxes.)

Those individuals with the M217 genetic marker were born in southeast Asia around 40,000 years ago. Ethnic groups with M217 all belong to the C3 haplogroup. Above them is M130, Above M130 is M168. All those above M168 finally ended with Y chromosome Adam (Please see Figure 2-5 The Paternal genetic tree in Page 1 of part 2). Australia’s aborigines’ Y chromosome genetic marker M347 is the descendant of M130 belonging to C4 haplogroup. Those with M217 and M347 genetic markers are really cousins. Obviously, this is an assumption since they might been born several thousands of years apart. The reason why skeletal fossils from North America resemble those discovered in Australia is because of this very kinship with the Australians.

Those individuals with the M242 genetic marker were born in central Asia about 22,000 years ago. Above M242 includes M45, M9 and M89. Above M89 is M168 which converges with M130. Children and grandchildren below individuals with the M242 genetic marker collectively belong to the haplogroup Q. M242 also has a cousin M207 who was the ancestor of many people in Europe and Asia. There were at least three branches of haplogroup Q who reached North America: Q1a3*(M346 genetic marker), Q1a3a (genetic marker M3) and Q1a4 (genetic marker P89.1). The time of birth of these genetic markers was about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Their birthplace might have been the Bering Strait or somewhere in North America. The time of their birth should be just when they were going to enter North America or just after they entered North America.

We can explain why we find such resemblance with the skeletal structure of Europeans among skeletal fossils discovered in North America just because there is this kinship between European and American aborigines.

Once we mention that the aborigines of North America came from Asia, inevitably we think of Asia as people in China, Korea and Japan. However, looking at this from the DNA decoding, most Asians have M175 genetic marker and belong to descendants of haplogroup O. There is a very distant kinship between them and haplogroup C3 (genetic marker M217) and haplogroup Q (genetic marker 242) (Figure 2-5 The Paternal genetic tree in Page 1 of part 2).

How does one distinguish which genetic marker and haplogroup to which a certain aborigine belongs? It is simple by just examining their Y chromosome DNA sequence. If their Y chromosome’s 13,946,717 locus (NCBI36) DNA letter is a ‘C’, then he is the descendant of M217 and belongs to haplogroup C3. While M217 was inside his mother’s womb, the original nucleobase A mutated and became a C and thereby gave birth to this new genetic marker which was subsequently passed on to future generations. On this same DNA locus for the rest of men on earth, it is still an A.

If on their Y chromosome’s locus 13,527,976 (NCBI36 standard) the DNA letter is ‘T’ (originally a C), then they are descendants of M242 belonging to haplogroup Q. This is a new genetic marker as a result of mutation while M242 was still in his mother’s womb (Reference 1).

As the result of analyzing 2,968 samples from American aborigines as well as samples from Asia and Europe using the above criteria, two Y chromosome distribution maps can be constructed .

From this figure one sees that haplogroup C3 is mainly distributed in North America, haplogroup Q in central and South America. Over 90% of aborigines in South America belong to haplogroup Q (Reference 2).

Figure 5-22 Distribution map of the American aborigines’ Y chromosome haplogroup

II. American aborigines’ mitochondrial DNA haplogroup and genetic markers

The mitochondrial DNA haplogroup is classified by the genetic mutations on the mitochondrial DNA. It is an indicator of the origin of the maternal lineage. The American aborigines’ mitochondrial DNA haplogroup is more complicated than the Y chromosome haplogroup. Nonetheless, over 95% of the aborigines can be accounted for by four mitochondrial DNA haplogroups: A2, B2, C1 and D1. In the northern part of the Americas, A2 predominates. In the southern part of the Americas, B2, C1, and D1 predominate. In Central America, we can find all four haplogroups.

1. Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A2

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A1 is one which deserves our special attention because it could be the earliest haplogroup who came to North America.

Just above haplogroup A2 is A4 and above A4 is A. Above A is N. Above N is L3. L3 left Africa accompanied by M168. There is sufficient DNA sample analysis data to prove that the place of origin of haplogroup A was the south east part of China. In central and southern parts of China, about 10% to 17% of the population possesses the haplogroup A. Because of the population density in China, those people carrying the A haplogroup far exceeds any other regions in the world. Moreover, China has the most branches of haplogroup A. Chinese molecular anthropologists conducted many in-depth research on haplogroup A (Reference 3). The information below comes primarily from their reports.

About 40,000 years ago, haplogroup A was born. After thousands, even tens of thousands years, a female with a new genetic marker A4 was born due to the mutation on mitochondrial DNA. During this period of time, the husbands who accompanied them must have carried the Y chromosome M130 genetic marker. Among their husbands, there were those with the Y chromosome haplogroup C3 (with M217 genetic marker) branch of M130. Part of this group continued their journey northward and entered Siberia. In Siberia, A2 was born approximately 24,000 years ago although there were reported which claims this date to be 16,000 years ago. The ethnic group formed by A2 and Y haplogroup C3 lived for a very long time in Siberia. Later on, a small group of them entered North America. North American aborigines’ mitochondria carry primarily A2. American Indians’ Y chromosome is primarily C3. It is very likely that the American aborigines are the descendants from the Siberian immigrants.

While settling in Siberia, there were males from various ethnic groups. For example, those with Y chromosome haplogroup Q married some of the haplogroup A2 female forming Y chromosome haplogroup Q plus mitochondrial haplogroup A2 ethnic group. Current in Siberia and North America among the Eskimo ethnic group there is a rather high percentage of people with this DNA combination.

In China, the Y chromosome haplogroup C accounts for less than 2% who belongs to the modern Chinese and they had arrived in China at an earlier period. Even though part of the ancestors of North American aborigines came from China, however, in many ways they are relatively far apart from the majority of the Chinese ethnic groups who are children or grandchildren of M122 (China’s Han ethnic group).Therefore, distinct difference in the physique can be found. Nonetheless, American aborigines and modern Chinese both came from M168 and L3 who were originally from Africa and later migrated out of Africa. American aborigines and modern Chinese are descendants of these two paternal lineage (M168) and maternal lineage (L3).

2. Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup B2

The descendants of mitochondrial haplogroup B are widely distributed in east and Southeast Asia including China, Korea, Japan, Philippines and other places. This haplogroup B belongs to below haplogroup N (Please see Figure 5-1). Underneath B, there is haplogroup B2. Among the aborigines in Americas, 24% carry the B2 genetic marker. Outside of America, we hardly can find ethnic groups with mitochondrial B2. B2 was born around 16,500 years ago and later than A2 (Reference 4). From this fact that the descendants of haplogroup B2 only exist in the Americas, we can said with certainty that the first female with mitochondrial DNA haplogroup B2 must have been born in either Siberia or North America.

3. Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup C1

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup C1 is the descendant of haplogroup C. Haplogroup C was born 40,000 years ago in central Asia. While haplogroup C migrated to Siberia, the haplogroup C1 branch was born. C1 was born about 20,000 years ago. The birthplace should be northeast Asia. Below C1, the branches C1a, C1b, C1c and C1d were born. C1a is found only in certain ethnic groups in Asia and yet C1b, C1c, and C1d are found only among the American Indians. Therefore, quite a few molecular anthropologists feel that C1b, C1c and C1d, these new mutation were born by the people who came from Asia and after they immigrated to North America, (Reference 5).

Since we can be fairly certain that the date when Asian migrated to North America was around 15,000 years ago, therefore we assume that C1a was separated from those who migrated to North America around this same time i.e. 15,000 years ago. Moreover, the mutation rate of the mitochondrial DNA can be calculated from the number of mutations after this separation.

In addition, the reader should know how to distinguish between the Y chromosome haplogroup C and the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup C when we mention them simultaneously.

4. Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup D1

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup D is found in more than 30% of people living in China, Korea and Japan. In the Eskimo from Siberia, haplogroup D is found in 20% (based on 79 samples). Haplogroup D1 is only found in the American Indians. Haplogroup D1 is a descendant of haplogroup D. Therefore, the American aborigines’ haplogroup D1 must have originated from Siberia (Reference 5).

III. Archeological results from America

Who were the first people who came to America? When did they arrive in America? These are unresolved questions up to the present time. In the past, we rely on archeological excavations and carbon 14 dating method to provide answers to these questions. Since 1990, the new technology of DNA decoding method when applied to modern human beings and those from ancient skeletal remains has shed new light on these two unresolved questions.

There are around 20 archeological sites dated back to 11,500 years ago found in North and South America. We have selected a few representative ones described below.

Figure 5-23 Key archeological excavations in North and South America

1. Ancient teeth found in Alaska

At the most western end of Prince of Wales island in Alaska, there is a cave which has attracted the attention of many archeologists named On Your Knees Cave because it has a narrow entrance and one can only get into the cave by crawling on ones knees (Figure 5-23 marked location N2). In 1996, human skeletal remains were found in this cave. According the law which protects the American Indian aborigines’ burial sites, scientists can only excavate the skeletal remains and conduct research only with the approval of the local tribes (Reference 6).

After the excavation and subsequent technical analysis, results confirmed that the skeletal remains belong to a male approximately 20 years old. While alive, his food included many types of marine animals. The stone tools and other equipments which were found next to him reflect a civilization with high standards. May be a very strong polar bear had killed him while trying to compete for this same cave. The skeletal remains of this male include his mandible, teeth and right pelvic bone. Carbon 14 dating places the time he was alive at 10,300 years ago.

Among all the many archeological results on this cave, the one result which caught the attention of most people is the one which analyzed the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA from the skeletal remains of this male. Based on this research on his sample, we have gained new understanding of the migratory route of the earlierAmerican Indians after their arrival in North America.

DNA samples were obtained from the man’s second molar tooth root. From this sample, scientists obtained Y chromosome and determined that he carried the M3 genetic marker. Therefore, he belongs to the Y chromosome haplogroup Q1a3a. His mitochondrial DNA belongs to the haplogroup D. However, due to the incomplete mitochondrial sequence we cannot be certain if he belongs to haplogroup D1 just below haplogroup D.

From the first hyper-variable region of his mitochondrial DNA loop (Please see the content in Part 2), the researchers obtained the DNA special coding in 14 series ( each series have two) for example 1) 16092 (C) and 16223(T), 2) 16092 (C) and 16241 (G) etc. Then, the researchers did comparison from the mitochondrial DNA database of the American aborigines to search for the relatives and descendants of this male.

This same research team further conducted their investigation on the location of these individuals with the special genetic characteristics by plotting their residence on the map of North and South America. They found that all 47 individuals are distributed on the west coast of North and South America . Dr. John R. Johnson, Curator of Anthropology, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History in California has long been conducted research on the American aborigines’ DNA hereditary data as well their migratory history. For this reason, he was invited to help analyze the meaning and significance of this research. It is his belief that this is the most powerful evidence up to now that proves that the ancient American Indians followed the coastline when they migrated southward.

Among these immigrants there were members who carried this special DNA marker. They gradually followed the Pacific coastline and utilized the rich natural resources along the coast. They left behind their descendants who still live in the same areas. In the British BBC series “The Incredible Human Journey” there is a very vivid description on this migratory history in the part dealing with the Americas.

This is indeed an achievement from using mankind’s DNA decoding method to solve a historical mystery. Unlike the old archeological method of comparing the skeletal fossils, the DNA decoding method has not only objective numerical database but also clues and evidence-based information connecting ancient and modern human beings.

2. The unusual fossil found in Oregon’s Paisley cave

An international team consisting of 13 scientists from six countries including Denmark, U.S and UK published a research article in the 2008 April issue in Science entitled ”DNA from Pre-Clovis Human Coprolites in Oregon, North America”(Reference 7). Because of the unusual research goal, this report attracted a tremendous amount of attention among archeological research teams as well as molecular anthropologists worldwide.

The Paisley Cave is located in the central south region of Oregon about 300 miles from the ocean. Archeological research already started in 1930 and many products made from stone as well as clues of how the ancient people lived were discovered. In the summer of 2007, researchers from the University of Oregon found 14 old feces fossils. Therefore, Professor Dennis Jenkins from the Department of Archeology at the University of Oregon started his research on these fossils by forming a research team.

Professor Eske Willerslev from the Centre for Ancient Genetics, University of Copenhagen in Denmark was part of this research team. From the fecal fossils in the cave, these researchers obtained mitochondrial DNA samples. Their research results showed that four of these samples were the “products” from human being. Simultaneously, they commissioned “Beta Analytic Inc.” in the U.S. and Oxford University to conduct carbon 14 dating. The collective research results are shown in the Table below:

This report gives an accurate dating of the haplogroups to which the ancient people’s mitochondrial DNA belongs. Moreover, this report has special significance in confirming the origin as well as the dating of American aborigines.

There are people who question the results of this report (Reference 8). Because of the substantial amount of research data, we feel that more research in the future will confirm the aforementioned results.

3.The Clovis Culture

In the study of the history of American aborigines, there is a very important phrase, namely the “Clovis Culture” which represents a special period of time of comprehensive significance merging culture with technology.

The Clovis Culture gets its name from the “Clovis stone spear”. The “Clovis stone spear” was a spear made from stone and used by prehistoric humans living in North America. It was first unearthed from a New Mexico town Clovis. The Clovis stone spear is considered by archeologists as the earliest evidence of North American aborigines’ culture.

The Clovis culture is representative of the prehistoric culture of ancient American Indians who lived in North America. From carbon 14 dating method, we could trace these human remains to 11, 500 years ago (carbon14 years) at the end of the last glacial period. After subsequent correction, we could place this date to 13,500 years ago. The Clovis stone spear was the tool they used to hunt large mammals. It is also a sign of this time period. Archeologists named those American aborigines living at this time the “Clovis people”. From the wounds on the remains of ancient mammoth, Clovis stone spears were found which indicate that these mammoths were hunted by the Clovis people. Moreover, they also hunt bison, mastodons, ground sloths, tapirs, ancient sheep, horses and other small animals for food.

Until the end of the 20^th century, mainstream archaeologists believe that the Clovis people were the first to reach North America. During the ice age, the Clovis people from Siberia’s Bering land bridge crossed the Bering Strait to Alaska. They crossed the east side of the Canadian Rockies’ (without any ice at the time) McKenzie Corridor southward to the present day Canada. Yet, we are finding more and more evidence of culture earlier than the Clovis culture.

4. Pedra Furada archeological site

Pedra Furada archeological site in Brazil (Figure 5-23: S2 site) is a very famous archeological location. At the site, archeologists unearthed a large quantity of stone tools including stone knives, stone scrapers, stone darts dated back to 7,000 to 12,000 years ago based on the layer of earth where they were found. Moreover, there petroglyphs from 5,000 to 11, 000 years ago.

Besides this, the rock shelters formed by cliff rock archeologists found residual charcoal which was left behind by the fire used by the ancient people. From carbon 14 dating, this was created between 32,000 to 48,000 years ago. However, this is still a heated debate as to whether the residual charcoal was man-made or formed naturally. Niede Guidon, a famous Brazilian female archeologist believed that the charcoal was formed when the ancient people used fire. If indeed the residual charcoal the result of ancient people left behind after they used a fire, then this fact will usher in an earlier time when the North American aborigines migrated to South America.

IV. What did we see from the DNA decoding?

Figure 5-24: The migratory routes of the haplogroups of Y chromosome and mitochondrial

1. Who had accompanied C3 when he came to America?

Just as M168 was accompanied by L3, every paternal haplogroup must be accompanied by a maternal haplogroup. At times, one paternal haplogroup was accompanied by more than one mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. One example is the Australian aborigines mentioned in the previous Page.

Y chromosome haplogroup C3 is the children or grandchildren of genetic marker carrier M130 (children and grandchildren below all belong to haplogroup C). We have discussed earlier that M168 left Africa for Asia with the maternal genetic carrier L3.While migrating eastward reaching the southwest region of Asia, paternal M168 gave birth to genetic marker carrier M130. Below the maternal genetic marker carrier L3, the new maternal genetic marker carriers, N and M were born. Among the daughters of N and M, a small number of them accompanied M130 continued to migrate eastward along the coastline. Most of the N and M daughters accompanied the M168 males who decided to settle down. Later, the daughters of N and M accompanied the new genetic marker carrier M89 northward towards the Eurasian continent (Please see Figure 5-13).

When those people who went eastward reached the southern part of Asia, they separated into two branches. One branch continued their journey eastward towards Oceania. Subsequently, this branch formed two new branches, C2 and C4. C2 reached New Guinea and C4 reached Australia.

The other branch followed the coastline northward and formed two new branches, C1 and C3 in China. C1 reached Japan via Korea. Part of C3 reached Mongolia and the others reached Siberia and eventually North America.

Which one of the daughters from the maternal lineage accompanied C3 to North America? The four major mitochondrial DNA haplogroups found in North American aborigines are A2, B2, C1 and D1. Obviously, it should be one (or more) of these haplogroup.

In China, there are people who carry the Y chromosome haplogroup C3 as well as the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A. In the published report by the Chinese molecular anthropologists Zhiyoung Chen and Rubo Mo (Referece 3), they believed that A2 was the haplogroup who accompanied C3 to North America. Among the four haplogroups found in the North American aborigines, A2 was the most advanced in age. It is possible that she was born 24,800 years ago (Reference 10).

Y chromosome haplogroup C3’s age was much older than haplogroup Q. In addition, the distribution of C3 and A2 in North America is very similar. From this we can see that the opinion expressed by these Chinese scholars is based on hard evidence.

Collective results from these DNA decoding, it is clear that the female who accompanied C3 to North America belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A2. Moreover, it is very likely that mitochondrial DNA A2 was the only haplogroup who accompanied C3.

2.Y chromosome haplogroup Q’s migratory route

From the location on the paternal lineage tree and its birth date, haplogroup Q should be born later than C3. On the paternal lineage tree, Q is a descendant of Y chromosome M89 genetic marker carrier (Please see Figure 2-5 The Paternal genetic tree in Part 2). M89 might have been born 50,000 years ago in the southern part of Asia (Please see figure 5-13).

The descendants of M89 migrated northward and gave birth to M9 during this journey. M9’s descendants migrated northwest reaching central Asia and gave birth to a new genetic marker M45. M45 migrated northward reaching the western part of Asia close to Europe and gave birth to M173 and M242 two new genetic markers carriers. M173 migrated westward and became the ancestor of Europeans. M242 migrated eastward and became the ancestor of west Asian. Moreover, they migrated eastward crossing the Bering Strait and entered North America. It took approximately 40,000 years and travelled about 40,000 Kilometer to complete this huge journey. Therefore, this migration was quite slow. On average, a single generation just travelled 30 Kilometer. During this migration they left behind their descendants.

The descendants of male with the genetic marker M242 is classified as haplogroup Q. There were three branches of haplogroup Q, namely, Q1a4, Q1a3a, and Q1a3*, who entered North America. The female haplogroup who accompanied them to North America should be B2, C1 and D1. Maternal lineage haplogroup A2 accompanied Y chromosome C3 into North America. Did they also accompany haplogroup Q to North America? Even though this is a possibility, but it is more likely that after reaching North America migrating south along the coast, those females who used to live with the paternal lineage (Y chromosome) haplogroup C3 now accompanied Y chromosome haplogroup Q male migrated southward. This is why we can find maternal lineage mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A2 in South America.

From the analysis above, we can see that the paternal lineage (Y chromosome) haplogroup Q entered North America with just two or three small groups around 15,000 years ago. At least a few reached South America along the coast by boat or raft. Among the Siberia aborigines, there are three Y chromosome haplogroups and two mitochondrial DNA haplogroups not found in America. If there were more batches of immigrants to America, then the haplogroups found in North America would be much more complicated. This is what we discussed as the migratory “bottleneck effect” which we have already discussed in Page 1.

3. Is it possible that the South American aborigines originally came from the other side of the Pacific Ocean 30,000 years ago?

There are people who believe that the South American aborigines might have originated from the other side of the ocean. Their hypothesis is built on the fact that there are a skeletal fossils from South America which are very similar to those found in Australia. Another reason is that some people believe that the South America’s aborigines had a much longer history than the North America’s aborigines. All these conclusions are built on the traditional archeological methodology, namely, skeletal comparison, dating analyses of excavated tools and the layers of earth. Nonetheless, to confirm the place of origin of these aborigines requires the support of DNA decoding.

The Y chromosome of South America’s aborigines is basically the haplogroup Q. There this no haplogroup Q genetic marker M242 in the aborigines of Oceania. Haplogroup Q was born 22,000 years ago in the central Asia region. There is no report which shows that they reached Oceania. From these two points, one can refute the possibility that the aborigines with haplogroup Q crossed the ocean 30,000 years ago.

From the viewpoint of mitochondrial DNA haplogroup, mitochondrial DNA haplogroup A2 ethnic groups cannot be found in Oceania. The other mitochondrial DNA haplogroups found in South American are B2, C1, and D1. The age of these haplogroups is less than 30,000 years. Therefore we can see that we cannot find supporting evidence from mitochondrial DNA decoding. If we say that the skeletal fossils found in South America resemble those in Australia, may be this could be accounted for by the proximity of the hereditary lineage between the South America aborigines’ Y chromosome C3 and Australian aborigines’ C4.

Apparently, the Brazilian female archaeologist, Dr. Niede Guidon’s opinion that the Pedra Furada Sites being 40,000 years old should be seriously questioned.

4. Can we determine from DNA decoding as to when the aborigines find arrived in North America?

Based on the fact that on the paternal lineage tree haplogroup C3 is older than haplogroup Q and mitochondrial haplogroup A2 is older than haplogroups B2, C1 and D1, therefore the union between the paternal C3 and the maternal A2 may have been the first who arrived in North America.

The distribution of the North America aborigines from this union matches perfectly with the geographical location of the McKenzie Corridor. If this corridor was closed between 15,000 to 22,000 years ago (closed for 7,000 years), then, their arrival must have been either before or after this period i.e. before 22,000 years ago or after 15,000 years ago. Of course this does not preclude the fact that they arrived in North America by crossing the ocean during the period when the corridor was closed. From DNA decoding, one can only give such an answer.

As we have already explained in Page 1 of the Part 4, DNA decoding is very accurate method to unravel the mystery surrounding mankind’s lineage. However, when it comes to pinpointing the exact time period, DNA decoding method leaves much room for error. Oftentimes, one must rely on physical dating methods for answer to a question like this one.

5. The importance and significance of DNA decoding in unraveling the origin of Modern humans and his migratory history

For the last few hundred years, traditional archeological method determined Modern humans’s physiological state and living conditions at the time from comparison of excavated fossils and stone tools. It is difficult to connect all the relatives of the ethnic groups around the world. Moreover, it is impossible to connect modern human beings with the ancient peoples who once lived around the globe. Because of this, many erroneous conclusions have been drawn.

The birth of molecular anthropology with the research focus on the origin of modern humans and his migratory history by utilizing the DNA decoding method has succeeded in obtaining very exciting results. The analysis of ethnic groups’ Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA decoding around the world led to two conclusions: 1. All ethnic groups around the world came for one pair of parents and 2. Clarification of the relatives of all ethnic groups around the world and their geographical distribution. From modern humans’s hereditary and relationship tree and their geographical distribution, one can depict a 3-dimentional picture of the origin and development of modern humans. Moreover, it shows a completely new understanding of modern humans’s knowledge of himself.

This is the outcome concerning the analysis of the origin of North America aborigines.

Conclusion of this Page: (taken from the BBC TV series " The Incredible Human Journey" "parts of the Americas," the conclusion is telefilm Conclusion)

“With a foothold in this New World, the first Americans flourished here, until eventually, some 15,000 years later, they were to come face to face with some distant members of their family tree. In 1492, a small group of European explorers arrived on the shores of the Americas, where they were met by bewildered locals. Even though both groups were branches of that original exodus from Africa some 70,000 years ago,

the Europeans didn't see the inhabitants of America as long-lost cousins, but rather as wild, savage, even unhuman. And the Native Americans saw those strange visitors as deities possessed of supernatural powers. They just didn't recognize each other.

Over the next 400 years or so, this physical and cultural divide would help fuel the slaughter of the native people. Even conservative estimates run into hundreds of thousands dead. A tragedy which seems so much more senseless in light of what we now know about our human story. Our origins in Africa, the journeys our ancestors made

and the close genetic bond we all share. The differences between us all are really just superficial. We're all members of a young species that goes back less than 200,000 years, and we're all surprisingly closely related.

This is the story that has emerged from the study of stones, bones and our genes. That wherever we've ended up all over the world, we are Africans under the skin. And uncovering that story, retracing the steps of our ancestors, has given me a profound sense of our common humanity, our shared past and our shared future.”

After seeing this general explanation, let us compare it with the viewpoint expressed by Darwin in his book: different peoples all are the result of evolution from different types of apes and at different stages of evolution. They were all unrelated (Darwin’s book, “The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex”). There is such a big difference in these two viewpoints. We must change our old concept which we got from the erroneous theory of evolution and accept the new science, the new findings and new concept. A true understanding that every one on earth are the descendants from one pair of parents should enables us to treat one another as ones own brothers and sisters.

Reference:

1.See “Y-DNA SNP Index – 2011”£¬The International Society of Genetic Genealogy (The International Society of Genetic Genealogy ISOGG) ,

http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_YDNA_SNP_Index11.html

2. Y haplogroup C3 and Q distribution in the Americas, based on the results of 14 studies reported consolidated drawn into. In these studies, a total of 66 ethnic groups collected thousands of DNA samples, of which 2,968 samples from the Americas.

3.Chen Zhiyong,Migration and Diversification of Mitochondrial Haplogroup N in East Asians,Communication on Contemporary Anthropology Vol.

4.Erika Tamm1, et. al., Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders,PLoS ONE Issue 9, September 2007.

5. Pedro Soares,Correcting for Purifying Selection:

An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock,The American Journal of Human Genetics 84, 740–759, June 12, 2009

6.Brian M. Kemp, et. al.,Genetic Analysis of Early Holocene Skeletal Remains From Alaska and its Implications for the Settlement of the Americas, American journal of physical anthropology 132:605–621 (2007).

7.M.Thomas P.Gilbert, et. al.,DNA from Pre-Clovis Human Coprolites in Oregon, North America,Sciencexpress,3 April 2008 / Page 1.

8.Hendrik Poinar et. al.,Comment on “DNA from Pre-Clovis Human Coprolites in Oregon, North America”, Science July 10 2009.

9. R E Taylor, The Contribution of radiocarbon dating to new word archaeology , Radiocabron, Vol 42, Nr 1, 2000, p 1–21 and

“New date for Old Crow caribou flesher”, Center for the Study of Early Man, University of Maine at Orono, Volume 2, Number 2, 1985. “Four specimens were undoubted artifact, including a caribou-tibia flesher, two caribou antler wedges, and a caribou antler billet. Previously dated to 27,000 yr B.P., the caribou flesher yielded a new date of only 1350+-150yr B.P. The other three artifacts yielded similar late prehistoric dates. ”

10. Saillard J, et. al., mtDNA variation among Greenland Eskimos: the edge of the Beringian expansion. Am J Hum Genet 67:718-726£¬Sep. 2000.

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