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Part 5 The key of DNA decoding: Formula P
For over 20 years, the research of DNA sequences in molecular anthropology has led us to the conclusion: modern people all share a common grand, grand… mother, the Mitochondrial Eve, through analysis the mitochondrial DNA, and a common grand, grand… father, the Y-chromosome Adam through analysis the DNA coding of ZFY gene of Y chromosome. Meanwhile, human paternal and maternal migration histories are described respectively according to the genetic markers of mutation.
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The majority of human DNA sequences, however, are contained in autosomes. There is no difference between male’s autosomes and female’s autosomes. One question is: Are there any markers on the 22 autosomes of human beings? Through research, we found that such markers do exist in the autosomes and are in great numbers. One can see eight markers in such DNA coding sequence in Appendix of this book (Appendix: Information of DNA Codes in Gene Bank). These are “inherent markers” that have never changed since birth of human beings, which fully proves that all modern human beings are the offspring of Scientific Adam and Scientific Eve.
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To measure the probability that all human beings share the same origin - Scientific Adam, we have introduced the probability theory and created P formula. It can be used as a key for DNA sequence decoding.
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I. The significance of the markers on the autosomes
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However, within our common understanding concerning the aforementioned “the common ancestors two hundred thousand years ago”, there still exist some questions which demand answers.
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Such as: Since these results do not imply that the man and the woman were the only living persons in that distant era, one can almost certainly conclude that many other people also lived in that era. It just so happened, the genetic lineages of other people’s Y chromosome (in the case of men) and mitochondria (in the case of women) did not pass on to the subsequent generations, they simply became extinct. The two common ancestors were just “lucky enough”.
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It is an important question for scientists of molecular anthropology: whether many human beings had evolved but the common ancestors were The Sole pair who had offspring to current?
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If a couple has only daughters but no son, the Y chromosome from the father will not be inherited. In the same way, if they have no daughter, the mitochondria from the mother will be lost. However, their autosomes were all inherited by their sons or daughters, so the autosomes must have evidence of their DNA, which their children inherited.
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We can attribute all these concerns to the following question:
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Did the individuals who lived during the same time period as Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve, have the same genetic markers as Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve?
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1. If they possessed the same genetic markers as Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve, the answer will be simple. We can then be certain that there were many similar people like Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve, those were their brothers, sisters or cousins. We can call them the “people with common ancestors” just as all the people living on earth today with the same genetic markers as Mitochondrial Eve or Y-chromosome Adam. Hence, we all come from the common ancestors two hundred thousand years ago.
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2. If the answer to the aforementioned question is “No”: those people living at the same time as Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve all have their own (different) genetic markers. Then we can refer them as “people not from the same ancestors as the Y chromosome Adam or Mitochondrial Eve” or simply “people not with common ancestors.” These people do not exist today because their genetic markers did not pass on to subsequent generations due to lack of male or female descendants.
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From meiosis (see below) in human reproduction, it can be deduced that as long as “people without common ancestors” were involved in human reproduction, the autosomes are bound to leave their DNA markers. This will produce some modern people with autosomes lacking the genetic markers of most people.
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Therefore, the only way to resolve this debate is this: if we can find a genetic marker which everybody has on his/her autosome without exception, then we can prove that we are all from “people with common ancestors.”
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If this can be proven, then we can ascertain that the lineage of modern humans is pure and uncontaminated by impurities. This is the significance of the autosomal markers.
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II. The Human DNA “first genetic marker” on the autosome
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1. “The first genetic marker” is the marker which confirms mankind’s kinship
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Is there such a genetic marker on the autosome? The answer is affirmative! It resembles Y chromosome Adam Marker (729 DNA codes). This genetic marker has 789 DNA codes and is located at position 2q13 to 2q14.1 of chromosome 2 (autosome 2 long arm region 13 to 14.1). We can call it the “first genetic marker of mankind” (abbreviated the first genetic marker).
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If the autosomes from everybody on earth contain the same “first genetic marker” and no men or women without this genetic marker were ever found, then regardless of whether the “people without common ancestors” existed, these people will have no kinship with people now living on earth. This is because our blood does not contain any components of the “people without common ancestors”. For example, even though the Java Man, Peking Man, Neanderthal Man etc. had once existed on earth, they were not the ancestors of modern humans. They were only apes that were unrelated to us.
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2. Did the chimpanzee’s chromosomes 2A and 2B merge to become chromosome 2 in humans?
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After decoding human DNA, some scientists hoped to use the results to prove the accuracy of the theory of evolution. They concluded that the merging between autosomes 2A and 2B produced the chromosome 2 of humans; autosomes 2A and 2B were the autosomes of the chimpanzee that have the same DNA as old ape. This conclusion is cited in many research articles and in textbooks.
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Dr. Francis Collins, a famous molecular physiologist, supported this unproven theory strongly in his book, “The Language of God” (Reference 3, The Language of God P137), which subsequently influenced many people. Hence, we must take a serious look at this theory. Based on the analysis below, we can see that this theory has no basis.
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After knowing about human DNA, there are many individuals who hope that this knowledge will help prove the accuracy of the theory of evolution. Every little bit of insight which supports the theory of evolution despite the paradoxical conclusions will be viewed favorably and is published. On the contrary, if the research result contradicts the theory of evolution, it will be rejected by scientific journals because evolutionary biology is ruling the scientific world.
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3. A much emphasized “789 nucleotide sequence of DNA coding letters”
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This “fusion region” in the 789 nucleotide sequence of DNA coding letters. In the book “The Language of God”, the author cites the 2005 report on chromosome 2 stating that humans’ chromosome 2 was” where this proposed chromosomal fusion must have happened. Moreover, the author further states: The fusion that occurred as we evolved from the apes has left its DNA imprint (Reference3, P138).
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In the 2005 April 7 issue of Nature, La Deana and coworkers published an article on chromosome 2 stating:” On chromosome 2, the local region surrounding the ancestral chromosomal Fusion site on 2q13–2q14.1 had previously been described (Reference 4).
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.The report that “had previously been described “is the report entitled: "Genomic Structure and Evolution of the Ancestral hromosome Fusion Site in 2q13-2q14.1 and Paralogous Regions on Other Human Chromosomes " (Reference 5). In this 2002 report, two other relevant reports (References 6, 7) were cited.
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These four reports cross referenced one another and appear quite complicated. Actually, it is quite simple: on chromosome 2’s 2q13-2q14 locus with the 789 nucleotide sequence there are some repeated chains of “TTAGGG” which “could represent the head-to-head fusion of the two chromosomes”. The reason is that “TTAGGG” coding letter chain is only found at the two ends of the chromosomes’ “telomere” and is replicated multiple times (Please see Figure 6-1).
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4. “789 nucleotide DNA coding letter sequence” can be a genetic marker
Here, let’s not discuss whether or not this DNA coding proves the fusion of the two chromosome but instead let see if we can consider the 789 nucleobases coding as a genetic marker. We should thank The National Center for Biotechnology Information –NCBI free information on the complete human genome. In this part, the author directly obtained all relevant information concerning DNA coding from the NCBI website.
 Figure 6-1 Genetic markers on autosome (the “first genetic marker” of human DNA)
To qualify as human beings’ DNA genetic marker, three conditions must be met, namely accuracy, immutability, and ability to maintain the hereditary characteristics. In the article entitled : ("Genomic Structure and Evolution of the Ancestral hromosome Fusion Site in 2q13-2q14.1 and Paralogous Regions on Other Human Chromosomes") report (Reference 5) which further affirms these three conditions.
(1) First, this report points out the coding region RP11-395L14 (AL078621) contains 789 nucleotide DNA coding letters.
(2) This report points out that this fusion of chromosomes only occurred in humans and is fixed.
(3) This fusion was produced after humans were separated from apes and before modern humans migrated all around the world.
This report states: “Because the fused chromosome is unique to humans and is fixed, the fusion must have occurred after the human–chimpanzee split, but before modern humans spread around the world”
The meaning of this statement is this: because of this fusion of two chromosomes from the ape’s 24 pairs of chromosomes, the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans were created. This occurrence allowed the ancestors of humans to be separated from the ancestors of the apes. This extended to every one living today. This 789 nucleotide base DNA coding is proof of this process which is preserved until now.
Obviously, these 789 nucleotide base DNA coding letters can be considered a genetic marker which is called “DNA imprint” by the author of the book “The Language of God”. We can consider this autosomal genetic marker as “autosomal genetic marker” or mankind DNA’s “first genetic marker”. Since it is considered the most important genetic marker in our understanding of the origin of man, it is called the “first genetic marker”.
5. “The first genetic marker” can be inherited through paternal or maternal inheritance
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This “first genetic marker” is located on human autosome 2. The difference between this autosome and either Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA is that in this pair of human autosome, one comes from father and the other from mother. Hence, “the first genetic marker” on the autosome 2 is a genetic marker of the father’s as well as the mother’s. It can be inherited from the father as well as the mother. If one of the parents had this marker while the other did not, then through the process of continuous reproduction, ethnic groups with autosome 2 either without the “first genetic marker” at all or with it present in only one of the strands of the autosome pair will gradually be formed.
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To further illustrate this point, we need to review the human reproductive process. Let us briefly review relevant information found in common high school textbooks.
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III. Meiosis and the inheritance of the “first genetic marker”
1. Meiosis and fetal formation
Whenever we talk about autosomes and its inheritance, we must involve meiosis and the fetal formation. Here, we will introduce the paternal sperm production and its meiosis and also explain the inheritance of the “first genetic marker”. The content below is taken from high school biology course.
After a male reaches sexual maturity, the spermatogonia, or immature germ cells, on the lining of the seminiferous tubules in the testes begin to undergo meiosis. After meiosis, the spermatogonia forms mature germ cells i.e. sperms. The actual process is described below:
Spermatogonia cells each have 22 pairs of autosomes, one pair of sex chromosomes. For each pair (two) of autosome, one comes from father and the other from mother.
Figure 6-2: The inheritance of the “first genetic marker” on chromosome 2
The two chromosomes, one from father and one from mother, is called homologous chromosomes. At stage 1 of meiosis, the two chromosomes replicate independently. After replication, since each chromosome contains two sister chromatids, therefore there are a total of four chromatid called tetrads(four DNA molecules).
The next stage is the tetrad association process. Among the non sister chromatids (from the father and mother’s autosomes) fragment of DNA exchange takes place leading to the exchange of parental genes thus creating genetic recombination. The quantity of DNA codes on the genes from each chromosome merely is less than 3% of the total DNA codes on that particular chromosome. Therefore, gene recombination will not lead to major structural change on the chromosome.
Then, the first meiotic division occurs to achieve the separation of the homologous chromosomes forming two secondary spermatocytes. Following this, the second meiotic division occurs, the associated sister chromosomes of each secondary spermatocyte also divide and form four sperms.
Fetus fertilized by these sperms will retain “the first genetic marker” in the paternal chromosome 2. Likewise, “the first genetic marker” will be retained in the maternal chromosome 2 of the fetus, if the egg was in the same situation. Men and women who developed from these fetal cells now become ordinary peoples around the world.
On the right hand side of Figure 6-2, women’s chromosome 2 contains “the first genetic marker” and yet this same genetic marker is not on men’s chromosome 2. After meiosis, the four newly created sperms only two retain this “first genetic marker” but not the other two.
Even though chromosome 2 from the egg has the genetic marker, however, since the sperm does not have the “first genetic marker”, therefore the fetal cells’ pair of chromosome will be lacking this genetic marker on the paternal part of chromosome 2. After these fetal cells become a mature adult, he (or she) is not an ordinary personal. Among his (or her) male or female descendants, 50% will be like them, namely, lacking the” first genetic marker” on part of the chromosome 2. After many generations of inheritance, there will be ethnic groups without the “first genetic marker”.
On the right side of Figure 6-2, if we let the males possess the “first genetic marker” and the females without the “first genetic marker”, we arrive at the same conclusion.
If on chromosome 2 of both male and female there is no such genetic marker, then after they were married the chromosome 2 of their children will also lack this genetic marker.
2. The hereditary relationship between mitochondrial DNA and the “first genetic marker”
Many people say that among those women who once lived their mitochondrial DNA failed to be passed until the present time just because their descendants did not breed females. This seems like a rational belief. However, once we have the “first genetic marker”, we can say that those female who once had lived must not include females “not from the same ancestors” i.e. those females without the “first genetic marker”.
If one woman “not with the same ancestor” and without the “first genetic marker”. She lived at the same time as mitochondrial Eve. Even though her mitochondrial DNA was not inherited, however, her autosome DNA was.
In short, as long as females without the “first genetic marker” exist and they (or their descendants) married mitochondrial Eve’s descendants, then we will find ethnic groups with the first genetic markers today. However, the analyses of the DNA samples from around the world scientists have never found a single individual without this genetic marker on his (or her) chromosome 2. Therefore, we can be certain that female “not from the same ancestors” never existed.
We can use the same type of reasoning and apply it to Y chromosome Adam.
Thus, if there were a handful of people “not from the same ancestors” or the added kinship from the Neanderthal man or other ape in mankind’s long reproductive history, we will find them.
Regardless of gender, eventually, ethnic groups without the “first genetic marker” on chromosome 2 will be developed. Yet, up to the present time, scientists have never found such ethnic groups. Isn’t the answer quite straight forward concerning the purity of modern humans’ kinship?
IV. The only one pair of parents
The facts revealed from DNA are unalterable. The evidence manifested by the “first genetic marker” is this: Every person now living on earth comes from one pair of parents. Moreover, this pair was the only pair of parents. These parents possessed the “first genetic marker” when they were created.
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If we abandon the view that chromosome 2 is the product of the fusion of two chromosomes and accept the fact that the 789 codes on chromosome 2 form a genetic marker, then this marker points to the fact that every living person on earth come from only one pair of parents. In regards to this point, our view is similar to the view of Dr. Francis Collins expressed in his book, “The Language of God”.
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Dr. Collins also said this: It was “left its DNA imprint here.” (Reference “The Language of God” P138). Moreover, Collins also says, “Thus, by DNA analysis, we humans are truly part of one family.” (Reference “The Language of God” P126) Obviously, this statement is quite similar to the idea that there is only one pair of parents. Indeed, merely having this “first genetic marker” is enough to prove that everyone on earth comes from only one pair of parents.
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If you do not accept this genetic marker, then the hypothesis that the 23 pairs of chromosome resulted from the chromosomal fusion of 24 pairs of chromosomes does not exist. Moreover, the hypothesis that humans and apes have a common ancestor has no foundation. From the theory of evolution, it becomes more difficult to explain the origin of man.
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If you accept the evidence revealed by this genetic marker, then you must also accept that all humans come from only one pair of parents.
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V. DNA report from 1092 men and women
Are the 789 DNA codes on the “first genetic marker” of chromosome 2 from everyone on earth the same? The answer to this question involves the magnitude of difference among the chromosomes of humans. There are two recent articles of relevance.
In the 2001 February 16 issue of Science which reported the fact that scientists have completed the sequencing of the human genome, only DNA samples from five individuals were used (Reference 8). These five individuals included two male and three female. They are one African American, one Chinese, one Hispanic from Mexico and two Caucasian (while). Of interest, DNA sample from the chief scientist of the Human Genome Project, Dr. Craig Venter, was one of the five individuals .
In the 2012 October 31 issue of Nature, an article entitled: An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes (Reference 9) reported that scientists have completed many more human DNA sequencing with samples from 1092 individuals. This research was the result of collaborative effort by scientists representing various research organizations from the UK, US and China Etc. . The ultimate goal of this research project was to obtain genetic information from 2,500 individuals from different ethnic groups around the world. Thousands of sample providers came from 14 countries in Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. The proportion of male to female ratio is 1 to 1.
In the 2013 January issue of the Journal of Human Genetics, there was another article entitled:” Southeast Asia 100 Malaysian genome deep sequencing” (Reference 10).
The same conclusion from these two reports is this: the average number of DNA mutations (SNP —Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) are 3.6 million DNA codes which accounts for 1.2 thousandths on the 22 pairs of autosomes DNA. Since most of the DNA mutations in humans are inherited from the mutations of their ancestors, therefore, different individuals possess many similar mutations. When we subtract these similar mutations, then, the chromosomal DNA mutation rate in humans must be less that one thousandth.
Based on the results from these two reports, we can deduce the 789 DNA codes from the “first genetic marker” is no more than just one letter difference among different individuals. About 200,000 years have passed since the emergence of modern humans to the present time. Despite several tens thousands of generations’ reproduction and several dozens of generations of cell division in the bodies of each generation, these 789 DNA codes remain unchanged by a single letter in the 7 billion people living on earth is a truly amazing fact.
Therefore, we can say with certainty that the “first genetic marker” in humans is irrefutable evidence that everyone on earth comes from “one and only one pair of parents”. The conclusion is this: group evolution and selective evolution theories are no longer qualify to be contestants in this discussion, because according to these theories it would be impossible to evolve only “one pair of parents”. Whether or not the “sudden change” created this pair of parents from chromosomal fusion will be closely examined in the subsequent two parts.
The other point from these two reports which deserves emphasis is the fact that these collected samples came from 50% of males and females and the researchers did not find any gender difference in their autosomes DNA. Male and female have the same autosomes. Female lacks the Y chromosome and has an additional X chromosome. Yet, there are so many gender differences. Why? Why in the first female we find the same “first genetic marker” as man on chromosome 2. These questions demand more studying and thought.
To understand ourselves better with DNA decoding is just the beginning. Over a hundred years ago, Darwin once thought that he had mastered the secret of mankind by proposing different conclusions concerning the origin of humans and their evolution. Had he been alive today, he will be truly shaken by all the current knowledge acquired about human genetics.
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